functions

MudOS has a variable type named 'function'.  Variables of this type may
be used to point to a wide variety of functions.  You are probably already
familiar with the idea of passing a function to certain efuns.  Take, for
example, the filter efun.  It takes an array, and returns an array containing
the elements for which a certain function returns non-zero.  Traditionally,
this was done by passing an object and a function name.  Now, it can also
be done by passing an expression of type 'function' which merely contains
information about a function, which can be evaluated later.

Function pointers can be created and assigned to variables:

function f = (: local_func :);

Passed to other routines or efuns, just like normal values:

foo(f);  map_array( ({ 1, 2 }), f);

Or evaluated at a later time:

x = evaluate(f, "hi");

When the last line is run, the function that f points to is called, and "hi"
is passed to it.  This will create the same effect as if you had done:

x = local_func("hi");

The advantage of using a function pointer is that if you later want to
use a different function, you can just change the value of the variable.

Note that if evaluate() is passed a value that is not a function, it just
returns the value.  So you can do something like:

void set_short(mixed x) { short = x; }
mixed query_short() { return evaluate(short); }

This way, simple objects can simply do: set_short("Whatever"), while objects
that want their shorts to change can do: set_short( (: short_func :) ); 

Available kinds of function pointers:
-------------------------------------

The simplest function pointers are the ones shown above.  These simply
point to a local function in the same object, and are made using 
(: function_name :).  Arguments can also be included; for example:

string foo(string a, string b) {
   return "(" + a "," + b + ")";
}

void create() {
    function f = (: foo, "left" :);

    printf( "%s %s\n", evaluate(f), evaluate(f, "right") );
}

Will print: (left,0) (left,right)

The second kind is the efun pointer, which is just (: efun_name :).  This
is very similar to the local function pointer.  For example, the objects()
efun takes a optional function, and returns all objects for which the
function is true, so:

objects( (: clonep :) )

will return an array of all the objects in the game which are clones.
Arguments can also be used:

void create() {
    int i;
    function f = (: write, "Hello, world!\n" :);

    for (i=0; i<3; i++) { evaluate(f); }
}

Will print:
Hello, world!
Hello, world!
Hello, world!

Note that simul_efuns work exactly like efuns with respect to function
pointers.

Note that the old style of function pointers (: ob, string :) are no longer
supported.  They are equivalent to (: call_other, ob, string :) in the new
syntax.  Here are some other examples:

f = (: call_other, this_player(), "query", "short" :)  // a efun pointer using
                                                       // the call_other efun
f = (: this_player()->query("short") :) // an expression functional; see
                                        // below.

The fourth type is the expression function pointer.  It is made using
(: expression :).  Within an expression function pointer, the arguments
to it can be refered to as $1, $2, $3 ..., for example:

evaluate( (: $1 + $2 :), 3, 4)  // returns 7.

This can be very useful for using sort_array, for example:

top_ten = sort_array( player_list, 
	  (: $2->query_level() - $1->query_level :) )[0..9];

The fifth type is an anonymous function:

void create() {
    function f = function(int x) {
        int y;

        switch(x) {
        case 1: y = 3;
        case 2: y = 5;
        }
        return y - 2;
    };

    printf("%i %i %i\n", (*f)(1), (*f)(2), (*f)(3));
}

would print: 1 3 -2

Note that (*f)(...) is the same as evaluate(f, ...) and is retained for
backwards compatibility.  Anything that is legal in a normal function is
legal in an anonymous function.

When are things evaluated?
--------------------------

The rule is that arguments included in the creation of efun, local function,
and simul_efun function pointers are evaluated when the function pointer is
made.  For expression and functional function pointers, nothing is evaluated
until the function pointer is actually used:

(: destruct, this_player() :)  // When it is *evaluated*, it will destruct
                               // whoever "this_player()" was when it 
                               // was *made*
(: destruct(this_player()) :)  // destructs whoever is "this_player()"
                               // when the function is *evaluated*

For this reason, it is illegal to use a local variable in an expression
pointer, since the local variable may no longer exist when the function
pointer is evaluated.  However, there is a way around it:

(: destruct( $(this_player) ) :) // Same as the first example above

$(whatever) means 'evaluate whatever, and hold it's value, inserting it
when the function is evaluated'.  It also can be used to make things more
efficient:

map_array(listeners, 
          (: tell_object($1, $(this_player()->query_name()) + " bows.\n") :) );

only does one call_other, instead of one for every message.  The string
addition could also be done before hand:

map_array(listeners, 
          (: tell_object($1, $(this_player()->query_name() + " bows.\n")) :) );

Notice, in this case we could also do:

map_array(listeners, 
          (: tell_object, this_player()->query_name() + " bows.\n" :) );